What is the difference between pneumothorax and tension pneumothorax?
Pneumothorax is the accumulation of air between the rib cage and the lungs i.e. in the pleural space.ImageThis can happen if there is a puncture wound in the lungs that leaks air into the chest cavity each time a person breathes in.It can also occur due to an external wound, for example a gun shot to the chest, wherein a suction mechanism is created each time the chest wall expands, sucking air from the outside between the ribs and the lungs.The severity of the condition depends on the amount of air trapped.Tension pneumothorax, like it’s name suggests, is the most severe, life threatening variety of pneumothorax wherein a colossal amount of air is trapped within the chest cavity. Most times, in such cases, the wound acts like a one-way valve i.e. air enters the chest cavity during inhalation but has no way to escape.This gives rise to fatal conditions. Accumulating air steeply increases the intra-thoracic pressure and, by extension, pressure on important life-sustaining structures in the chest — lungs, heart, major blood vessels, trachea (windpipe).The lung/s on the affected side quickly collapse with the important structures literally being pushed to the other side. This can easily be seen on chest X-rays.Clinical signs include (but not limited to) — respiratory distress, reduced O2, increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, reduced breath sounds and fullness of the chest on the affected side.If left untreated, the condition can lead to a painful death.Here’s a chest x-ray depicting tension pneumothorax.Here’s one moreThe blue arrows are showing the outline of the collapsed lung. The red arrows point to the deviated windpipe — from mid-line, it went to the right (patient right)Chest x-ray 1, Chest x-ray 2Pneumothorax - Wikipedia
What does retroperitoneal position mean?
Retroperitoneal literally means “beahind the peritoneum”. In order to understand the meaning of this word, you have to know what is the peritoneum.The peritoneum is a serous membrane which covers the walls of the abdominal cavity and most of the organs that are inside it. By covering the walls of the abdominal cavity (as parietal peritoneum) it forms the peritoneal cavity.All of the organs inside the peritoneal cavity are fully sorrounded by the peritoneum, being more specific, by its visceral layer. This layer forms from the wall of the peritoneal cavity (which is made of the parietal layer of the peritoneum) during the development of the fetus, when the developing organ grows towards the cavity dragging with it the peritoneal sheets. This type of development doesn't concern all of the abdominal organs, but some of them (like the kidneys or pancreas) result to be covered only by the parietal layer on their anterior surface. Therefore they result not to be in the peritoneal cavity, but behind it, which is the retroperitoneal cavity.Ps. I’m sorry for any mistake, but I'm not a native English speaker
***Directional Terms What are some examples for Visceral/Parietal & Bilateral. (HAVING TO DO WITH THE HUMAN BODY)?
Visceral is inside.... like pain coming form an organ is "visceral pain" Bilateral means on moth sides.... like they eyes, a disorder of both eyes is a "bilateral disorder"
Where are serous membranes found? What are their functions?
Serous membranes are a mesothelial tissue that lines certain internal cavities of the body, forming a smooth, transparent, two-layered membrane lubricated by a fluid derived from serum. The peritoneum, pericardium, and pleura are serous membranes. In anatomy, serous membrane (or serosa) is a smooth membrane consisting of two layers of epithelial cells (as membranes), which secrete serous fluid. The inner layer covers organs in bodily cavities and is called the visceral membrane; this inner layer of epithelial cells is followed by a connective tissue; after the connective tissue is the second layer of epithelial cells of the serous membrane called the parietal layer.The Latin anatomical name is tunica serosa. Serous membranes line and enclose several body cavities, known as serous cavities, where they secrete a lubricating fluid which reduces friction from muscle movement. Serosa is entirely different from the adventitia, a connective tissue layer which binds together structures rather than reducing friction between them. The serous membrane covering the heart and lining the mediastinum is referred to as the pericardium, the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs is referred to as the pleura, and that lining the abdominopelvic cavity and the viscera is referred to as the peritoneum.For more information see:Serous membrane
What is the difference between adventitia and serosa?
A serosa is a smooth membrane, composed of a simple squamous epithelium and a sparse layer of loose connective tissue, covering the external surface of an organ such as the stomach and small intestine.An adventitia is a layer of loose connective tissue (fibrous and/or adipose) covering the external surface of an organ, serving to hold the organ in place and bind it to adjacent tissues and organs. It has no epithelial layer and no distinct boundary; it grades off into adjacent connective tissue, often including the adventitia of adjacent organs. All of our veins and arteries, for example, are covered by adventitia that is often shared with adjacent blood vessels and nerves in “neurovascular bundles.” The vagina, likewise, has no distinct anatomical outer boundary and no outer epithelium, but is enclosed in adventitia shared with that of the urethra.A good comparison can be seen in the esophagus. Most of the esophagus—the thoracic part—is covered by adventitia which blends with the adjacent adventitias of the trachea and aorta. But after the esophagus penetrates the diaphragm, its lower few centimeters, just before it meets the stomach, are covered with a serosa.Here is a beautiful cross section of trachea to the left and esophagus to the right. You see the trachea encircled by two C-shaped bands of supportive cartilage, then the lighter tissue external to that (mostly adipose) is its adventitia. Around the esophagus, you see a thick band of pink-stained smooth muscle (provider of the propulsive force for swallowing) and then, peripheral to that, you again see that lightly stained adipose adventitia. As you can see especially at the bottom, the adventitia of the trachea and esophagus are continuous with each other.Here’s a cross section of small intestine (the distal end of its ileum). It’s hard to see at this magnification, but it has a definite, sharply defined outer boundary with an epithelial covering.At the higher magnification shown below, the dark pink layers are smooth muscle but the more wispy light pink layer at the top is serosa—most of it connective tissue, but the very thin upper surface is the epithelium. The dark pink spots in that layer are the nuclei of the epithelial cells.Here’s a schematic of intestinal serosa that further clarifies its structural relationships.
Specifically, where does the human conscience physically reside?
Thanks for the A2A.To date, neuroscience research evidence points to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and temporal sites like the amygdala, hippocampus, and posterior cingulate as involved in moral reasoning (see Raine & Yang, 2006). Some recent evidence has also marked the prefrontal lobules as being involved in making emotionally-driven moral decisions and the temporal and parietal lobules as being engaged in attributions of others’ intention and beliefs (Pascual et al., 2013). There has also been some fascinating recent research documenting the relevance of the temporo-parietal junction (of which the angular gyrus is a vital part) for moral decsion-making (see Scientists discover moral compass in the brain which can be controlled by magnets). Having greater gray matter density in these regions of interest (especially the PFC and anterior cingulate) may also increase the magnitude of moral reasoning (see Flexing Your Ethical Muscles Leads To More Gray Matter, see also Prehn et al., 2015).Sample references:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/... (Raine & Yang, 2006)How does morality work in the brain? A functional and structural perspective of moral behavior (Pascual et al., 2013)Neural Correlates of Post-Conventional Moral Reasoning: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study (Prehn et al., 2015)
What is the point of the intrapleural space in lungs?????????
The lungs are surrounded by two membranes, the pleurae. The outer pleura is attached to the chest wall and is known as the parietal pleura; the inner one is attached to the lung and other visceral tissues and is known as the visceral pleura. In between the two is a thin space known as the pleural cavity or pleural space. It is filled with pleural fluid, a serous fluid produced by the pleura. The pleural fluid lubricates the pleural surfaces and allows the layers of pleura to slide against each other easily during respiration. It also provides the surface tension that keeps the lung surface in contact with the chest wall. During quiet breathing, the cavity normally experiences a negative pressure (compared to the atmosphere) which helps adhere the lungs to the chest wall, so that movements of the chest wall during breathing are coupled closely to movements of the lungs. The parietal pleura is highly sensitive to pain; the visceral pleura is not. The visceral pleura has a dual blood supply, from the bronchial and pulmonary arteries. In humans, there is no anatomical connection between the left and right pleural cavities, so in cases of pneumothorax (see below), the other hemithorax will still be able to function normally. Diseases involving the pleura include: * Pneumothorax (collapsed lung): air enters the pleural cavity, either from the outside or from the lungs. This can be the result of a penetrating chest wound, or of an internal injury. A tension pneumothorax is where the punctured chest wall forms a one way valve so that air may enter (through the puncture) on inspiration, but cannot exit on expiration. With each breath air builds up in the chest cavity, compressing the lung still further, thus reducing the surface area available for gas exchange. It is a medical emergency. * Pleural effusion: fluid accumulates in the pleural space, compressing the lungs. This can result for example from lung cancer, infection or heart failure. * Mesothelioma: this is a type of cancer caused by asbestos exposure. * Pleurisy: an inflammation of the pleura, especially one causing painful respiration. Pleurisy can be provoked by a variety of infectious and non-infectious causes. The modern term for this is pleuritis, but the older term is still in common use.
What part of the brain controls emotions and how?
Emotions, like fear and love, are carried out by the limbic system, which is located in the temporal lobe. While the limbic system is made up of multiple parts of the brain, the center of emotional processing is the amygdala, which receives input from other brain functions, like memory and attention.AmygdalaShaped like an almond, the amygdala is responsible for multiple emotional responses, like love, fear, anger and sexual desire. Shippensburg University states that in animal studies, stimulation or removal of the amygdala alters the emotional response: electrical activation causes aggression, while surgical removal results in indifferent emotional reactions. Therefore, damage to the amygdala can result in abnormal emotional responses, and overstimulation causes excessive reactions.HippocampusThe hippocampus is another part of the limbic system that sends information to the amygdala. One of the memory processing centers of the brain, the hippocampus interacts with the amygdala when a person has memories with emotional ties. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research adds that the connection between the hippocampus and amygdala “may be the origin of strong emotions triggered by particular memories,” which explains emotional responses to traumatic memories.Prefrontal CortexThe prefrontal cortex, located near the front of the head, is involved in decision making in response to emotions. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research states that the prefrontal cortex controls what decision a person makes when faced with an emotional reaction, and also regulates anxiety.HypothalamusThe hypothalamus, also a part of the limbic system, feeds information into the amygdala. Shippensburg University states that the hypothalamus acts as a regulator of emotion, controlling levels of sexual desire, pleasure, aggression and anger.Cingulate GyrusThe cingulate gyrus acts as a pathway between the thalamus and the hippocampus, and plays a role in remembering emotional charged events. Shippensburg University notes that the cingulate gyrus focuses the attention on the event, alerting the rest of the brain that it is emotionally significant.Ventral Tegmental AreaThe ventral tegmental area is also involved in emotions and love, particularly in how a person perceives pleasure. Dopamine pathways are located in the ventral tegmental area: dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in mood, and increased levels elevate the person's level of pleasure.